Editor | On 12, Jan 2006

By: Rob van den Tillaart

Introduction
Some years ago there were two publications by Kevin C. Rea about the use of TRIZ in Computer Science and Information Technology called “TRIZ and Software – 40 Principle Analogies, Part I and II”.

In these two articles there were a few gaps as there were no analogies and examples for some of the 40 inventive principles of Altshuller. In this short essay I will present additional software analogies and examples as a proposal to fill these gaps. I reused the layout used by Kevin Rea’s in his articles as I found them useful and this way the new examples and analogies can be compared and merged more easily.

There are several actions still to do like base-lining definitions of the 40 principles for SW. As computer science is a very wide area the examples in this essay are from different areas, sometimes design level, sometimes on implementation level. It would be a good step to make separate ‘TRIZ4’- overviews for the different parts of the software life cycle. Think of focussing on the requirement elaboration, analysis, architecture design, building, deploying and maintenance process. People can join this kind of discussions at http://trizforsoftware.com.

1 The 40 inventive principles

1.1 Segmentation
Dividing the system in smaller parts.

Software Analogy:
Divide a system, the design, an object or a data stream into autonomous parts. Think of modular design or the use of OO technology. Increase the level of granularity until a solution is reached. Bits can be thought of as atomic in the context of an encoding scheme.

Software Examples:
· Best known example is the top down approach of designing an application. At design time one divides the system into smaller chunks thereby dividing the complex system in smaller less complex modules. This process can be done again for every module until the building blocks aren’t complex anymore.
· One can build an application upon autonomous services that are available either locally or over the Internet like Web-services. Similar one can build applications using commercial available components.

1.2 Extraction
Separate (extract) an interfering part or property from a technical system, or single out the only necessary part (or property).

Software Analogy:
Given a language, define a representation for its grammar along with an interpreter that uses this representation to extract/interpret sentences in the language. Remove those parts of an information stream that add no value to it.

Software Examples:
· In signal processing there exist several ways to do noise reduction. For example one can calculate or measure the background noise in an image, subtract it from the image to enhance contrast of the real signal.
· The MP3 sound compression scheme removes those parts of the audio signal that most people cannot hear due to characteristics of the human hearing function.
· Lossy image compression e.g. JPEG removes information to get far better compression ratios of an image without (too) much image distortion.
· A tokenizer in a parser replaces every keyword with a smaller code to convert human readable code into code that can be processed by a machine. The simplest tokenizers are command line argument parsers that change a command line argument (a string) into a more elementary data type like an integer or even a boolean.

1.3 Local quality
Change a system from uniform to non-uniform; Make each part of a technical system fulfill a different and useful function.
Software Analogy:
Change an object’s classification in a technical system from a homogenous hierarchy to a heterogeneous hierarchy.

Software Examples:
· In an AI application that uses a blackboard model, different workers try to solve (part of) a problem in different ways e.g. partly top down, partly bottom up.
· Replace a linked list of lion objects by a linked list of animal objects. Higher abstraction allows non-uniform objects to be stored in the same container class or vice versa.

1.4 Asymmetry
Change the shape from symmetrical -> asymmetrical
Software Analogy:
Bring asymmetry in an application. Change the asymmetry of a technical system in order to non-uniformly affect a desired result of a computation.
Software Examples:
· Let a program e.g. a filter be able to process different input formats without increasing the number of output formats or single format in, multiple out.
· Suppose one has to calculate the average of a long list. Normally one counts all the values and divides the sum by list size. If the answer does not need to be exact one can do the same for a randomly chosen subset. This approximation is often sufficient and much faster. (see also 2.16 partial or excessive action).
· Standard quicksort takes the middle element as pivot. By using the median of three one often gets better performance.
· Replacing binary search that samples the middle element of a sub-array with a weighted binary search by using statistical knowledge about the distribution of the elements. An example is a weighted binary search that takes into account the distribution characteristics of the characters of the alphabet when searching in some sort of dictionary.

1.5 Consolidation

Do multiple operations in parallel
Software Analogy: Make processes run in parallel.

Software Examples
· Multitasking operation systems, multithreaded applications, hyper-threading, multi processor applications.
· Seti@home is a massive parallel computation distributed over millions PC’s in the world. These PC’s ask for a piece of data to analyze and sent their results back to the server. The boinc.org project is a spin off of Seti@home that provides a framework for this kind of parallelisms.
· A packet switching network allows multiple data streams run side by side over one wire. In fact they are not really parallel but sequential interleaved.
· An optical network cable (glass fiber) can really have parallel communications as multiple waves of different frequency are sent through the fiber simultaneously.
· A web page can be constructed of multiple frames. Every frame can come from a different server. Fetching such a web page is much faster as multiple connections can be used in parallel.
· Printing multiple copies of a document can be done faster when one prints it in parallel on more than one machine.
· A raid-5 disk array that divides a file over multiple disks can retrieve and store the file faster as it is retrieved/stored in parallel.
· Some peer to peer file sharing applications see that the requested file is available at multiple remote PC’s. Different chunks of the file can be downloaded from different PC’s combining them locally. The effect is an increased throughput.

1.6 Universality
Make a part of object perform multiple functions
Software Analogy:
Make a technical system support multiple and dynamic classifications based on context.
Software Examples:
· There exist many (command line) tools that behave differently depending on their startup parameters. Look at the help of XCOPY for example under windows.
· The Norton commander embeds multiple different functions in one single application.
· A function that searches for the maximum value can easily be extended to search for the minimum as well. Especially when a lot of I/O is involved for reading the data from a file.

1.7 Nesting (Matrioshka)
Place objects into another
Software Analogy:
Inherit functionality of other objects by “nesting” their respective classes inside a base class.
Uses multiple layers of abstraction.
Use recursive data structures and algorithms.
Software Examples:
· Layered software architectures like the OSI model for network communications.
· The top down analysis & design approach: design the high level components first, thereafter the component becomes an ‘autonomous project’ with a defined interface.
· A matrix is an array of arrays. One can define multidimensional arrays.
· Recursive data structures: tree’s, linked lists, but also the good old directory with subdirectories.
· Recursive algorithms: quicksort, tree-walking algorithms, backtracking.

1.8 Counterweight
To counter the weight of a system, merge it with other objects that provide lift.
Software Analogy:
Use sharing to support large numbers of fine-grained objects efficiently to counter dynamic loads on a technical system.
Use hashing functions to distribute ‘weight evenly’
Software Examples:
· To improve the performance of web servers one can divide a page in multiple frames and store the frames on different disks or even different servers. One can distribute the (large) images or data-blobs over different disks instead of putting them on one disk. The performance will increase.
· With hashing functions one can distribute objects over a set of buckets while keeping the number of objects in a bucket roughly the same.

1.9 Prior Counteraction
Pre-load a counter tension to an object to compensate excessive and undesirable stress.

Software Analogy:
Perform preliminary processor actions in system that will improve a later computation.

Software Examples:
· Suppose a user must wait for a time consuming action. If one informs the user that the action takes 10 seconds and it takes longer stress levels will rise. If one says it costs 30 seconds and it takes less time the user will like it.
Recall installation programs (or uninstallers) that say you only have to wait 2 seconds, but those 2 seconds can take 2 minutes sometimes or more.
· When an application starts that reads from a database one can load the most important tables or indexes ahead [can also be seen a ‘Prior Action’]

1.10 Prior Action
Perform, before necessary, a required change of an object (either fully or partially). Carry out all or part of the required action in advance.
Software Analogy: Same as above.

Software Examples;
· The read-ahead cache in a disk drive prepares for real reads.
· A web browser can fetch all references to other web pages that exist on the current page while the user reads the current page. A less memory consuming action is the resolving of the IP addresses of the hosts in the URL’s on the page.
· Imagine a database application that prepares data sets before it is asked for as it recognizes patterns in the usage of the application.
· A printer driver that tests the availability of a printer before the users finishes his settings.

1.11 Cushion in advance
Prepare emergency means beforehand to compensate the relatively low reliability of an object.

Software Analogy:
Use an algorithm that handles worst-case harmful effects and maintains global invariance. Don’t assume anything about something you haven’t completely in control. Whether it be 3rd party libraries, communication lines or users providing data.

Software Examples:
· An operating system that makes backups of essential files before it can be used. This prevents reinstalling when something gets corrupted.
· Set a timeout upon an operation that could block the system. E.g. a query to a database or trying to connect to a network service.
· The use of transactions in databases that can be rolled back are also a sort of cushion.
· An input handler that recognizes and filters or ignores badly formatted input.
· A route planner that calculates alternative routes during a ride. It knows from history that one or more parts of the route are often blocked by traffic jam. This way alternative routes are instantaneous available when needed.
· A word-processor that makes intermediate snapshots of the document typing to prevent loss of data in case of an OS crash. This includes making a copy of the document before editing.
· The trash can on most modern computer desktops

1.12 Equipotentiality
In a potential field limit position changes

Software Analogy:
Change the operational conditions of an algorithm so as to control the flow of data into and out of a process.
An analogy of the potential field is the time it costs to recreate an object in memory. Objects that costs much time must be kept alive as long as possible.

Software Examples:
· Intelligent memory swapping algorithm that calculates the chance of potential usage of an object in main memory. It will swap those objects that have the lowest potential usage.
· Keep intermediate results that took a long time to calculate as long as they are valid.
· In general it can be used when applications use data in a non-deterministic way. Try to keep the elements that most likely are used again.
· In genetic algorithms one often works with a ‘gene’ pool of possible solutions. Genetic algorithms keep the most potent solutions to ‘breed’ with. Solutions with less potential are removed.
· Reorder a database or file only when explicit needed. Often data is marked as deleted by flagging it as deleted. The records in the database aren’t moved although they seem to have new positions in the database.

1.13 Do it in reverse
Invert actions to solve the problem.

Software Analogy:
Store transactions in reverse order for backing out.

Software Examples:
· Every scheduling algorithm does this as reversing a schedule can be faster.
· In some algorithms one works with multiple sets of intermediate results. Do the most strong restrictions on these sets as soon as possible, thereby keeping the intermediate sets small and this processing fast. e.g. when joining two tables in a database first restrict each table to a minimal set before calculating the Cartesian product,
· Some calculations can cause an Overflow or underflow. By changing the order of the calculations this can be prevented. A simple floating point formula p = x * y / z; can be written as p = (x / z) * y or as p = y/z * x; One can even choose between formulas depending on the relative values of the variables x, y and z;
· For poems one reverse the strings in a dictionary. This makes it easier to look for words that end the same way.

1.14 Spheroidality
Replace linear parts with curved parts, flat surfaces with spherical surfaces, and cube shapes with ball shapes.

Software Analogy:
Replace linear data types with circular abstract data types. Also consider tree based or graph based data types. Similar is valid for the algorithms: replace linear performing algorithms with non-linear ones.
In general replace the simplest solution with a more complex one that might have additional benefits.

Software Examples:
· Replace a linear search, with a more complex search like binary search.
· Replace binary search with ‘weighted’ binary search.
· Change coordinates from Cartesian to Polar format to ease some calculations.
· Replace printing from PC to printer with printing through a server which gives more control over the print flows. Not using the shortest path has extra benefits.

1.15 Dynamicity
Allow or design the characteristics of an object, external environment, or process to change to be optimal or to find an optimal operating condition..
Software Analogy: Same as above.

Software Examples:
· Imagine the intelligent cache that tunes its size based upon the usage of the last 10 minutes.
· A dynamic user interface of an application can hide less used functionality and may even focus on the next anticipated step.
· A mathematical parser which is able to reduce a complex formula before calculating it e.g. y = sin(x)/cos(x) => y = tan(x).
· When doing image processing, one can dynamically change the threshold locally to obtain optimal contrast for character recognition.
· A compiler reorganizes the parsing tree to optimize the code it generates.
· Change the view in an application like PowerPoint. Editing the text in the outline mode is easier and gives better overview than in the presentation mode.
· Some graphic producing programs let the graphics self adjust their scales.

1.16 Partial or Excessive action
When 100% is difficult to reach, slightly less or more may be sufficient.

Software Analogy:
Increasing the performance of measurable and deterministic computations by perturbation analysis.

Software Examples:
· Heuristic optimizers for NP complete problems like the travelling salesman that stop when they are at 95% of the optimal route. To get the last 5% would cost an nonequivalent amount of time.
· To sort large arrays often quicksort is used as this algorithm performs generally well. However when the sub-arrays to be sorted become small, say less than 10 elements, other sort algorithms are used as they perform better.
· To improve reliability of some spacecraft multiple different processors calculate the same value with different algorithms. If the results are the same chances are high that the result is right.

1.17 Transition into a new dimension
Move an object into another dimension or add an extra dimension.

Software Analogy:
Use a multi-layered assembly of class objects instead of a single layer.

Software Examples:
· A queue that grows and cannot be hold in memory due to size can put new elements on disk until there is room in main memory again.
· In a user interface with essential 2D windows add a 3rd dimension to place less used screen further in the background. Let the windows rotate in the 3rd dimension.
· In image processing change a black and white image to a grayscale image before reducing or enlarging the image.
· Use hexadecimal notation for values can make bit operations more understandable.

1.18 Vibration
Use oscillation.

Software Analogy:
Change the rate of an algorithm execution in the context of time until the desired outcome is achieved.
Another ‘computer synonym’ for vibration is alternating.

Software Examples:
· In a pipeline architecture in which several filters process data after another the amount of time scheduled for each filter is related to the processing time of an item and the length of a queue.
· In the same pipeline architecture one can schedule the processes in the same order as the pipeline to get some sort of “wave” through the pipeline. In this ‘resonance’ mode the data for the next filter is available in memory. Performance will be far better than with random ad hoc scheduling.
· Connect the refresh of a screen not to the ticking of the system clock but to the arrival or departure of data in the GUI.
· The alternating use of MIN-MAX algorithms in games and in artificial intelligence is also some sort of vibration.
· Another alternating effect is a processing algorithm that reads alternating from multiple queues, e.g. in a round robin way.
· To minimize average seek time on disks one let the read head oscillate form the first rack to the last and back again, serving all requests for sectors when the read head flies over them.
· New ‘disk’ technology that uses two vibrating squares, one full of read heads, in stead of rotating disks with one moving read head.

1.19 Periodic action
Use periodic or pulsating actions instead of continuous action.